Author: Winifred Agnew-Pauley
Agnew-Pauley, Winifred, 2025 The police use of stop and search in England: A critical realist and ethnographic approach, Flinders University, College of Business, Government and Law
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The police use of stop and search powers is a core police activity that continues to generate international debate. Proponents argue that stop and search is essential for preventing crime and improving public safety. However, evidence increasingly suggests that stop and search generates harm, including the disproportionate targeting of ethnic minorities and young people and strained police-community relationships. These debates often overlook the underlying mechanisms driving stop and search and the circumstances under which it can lead to negative outcomes. To address this gap, this thesis applied a critical realist approach to analyse the police use of stop and search in England, where stop and search remains simultaneously contested and valued. Specifically, the thesis addressed the following research question: how do stop and search practices operate in England and how do contexts and mechanisms influence intended and unintended outcomes?
The research began with an international realist review of the police use of stop and search involving 205 studies from 21 countries. This review identified a range of contextual factors and mechanisms that influence stop and search outcomes and led to the development of a programme theory of stop and search. The empirical component of the research was a realist-informed ethnography. This ethnographic component consisted of 354 hours of observations across three community policing teams in an English county between October 2021 and January 2022. Twenty-two semi-structured interviews were also conducted with frontline and senior police officers and with key stakeholders who were actively engaged in stop and search policy or practice. Quantitative data from police-recorded stop and search was also analysed.
Bringing together the empirical findings, this thesis identified key factors that influence stop and search policy and practices in England: the historical tensions between the police and marginalised communities driven by structural and racial inequality; inconsistent messaging by governments on the objectives of stop and search; and a continued focus on low-level drug-related crime. Elements of the police organisational structure were also found to facilitate or incentivise the use of stop and search.
Within this context, several generative mechanisms shaping stop and search outcomes were identified. Stop and search was found to be closely linked to the identity of a ‘proactive’ officer. Officers were driven to use stop and search due to their belief in its deterrent effect; the need for consequences; and a perceived duty to protect the vulnerable. Evidence of neighbourhood bias in stop and search was observed, with operational decisions leading to the over-targeting of areas with lower socio-economic status. Examining the outcomes of stop and search revealed a disconnect between officers’ justifications for its use and how it is enacted in practice.
Bringing together the findings from the realist review and empirical research, this thesis highlights how stop and search outcomes are embedded in and perpetuated by key contextual factors and driven by complex causal mechanisms. The research makes a significant and original contribution to criminological theory and knowledge by providing a novel and comprehensive framework for stop and search and proposing pathways to reduce the harm that it generates.
Keywords: police, policing, stop and search, police powers, critical realism, ethnography, realist review, criminology, proactive policing
Subject: Criminal Justice thesis
Thesis type: Doctor of Philosophy
Completed: 2025
School: College of Business, Government and Law
Supervisor: Associate Professor Caitlin Hughes